LAB CAPABILITIES | O.R.C. Lab

Research Capabilities of the Outdoor Recreation and Conservation Lab

The lab is capable of taking on a wide variety of projects, but in general we focus on:

General visitors’ perceptions about protected area experiences and important aspects that contribute to, or detract from, visitation or experiential quality.
Development of visitor use indicators, triggers, and thresholds that will help achieve desired conditions.
The degree of difference between desired and existing conditions for visitor use, temporally segmented between low and high use periods.
How the amount and type of visitor use may relate to maintaining and achieving the desired conditions.
Visitor capacity and implementation tools, particularly for high use periods.
Current and ideal visitor travel patterns, use distributions, routing, and parking lot use, including visitors’ experiences with traffic congestion and parking challenges where applicable.
Support and opposition levels for potential management actions that will help achieve and maintain the desired conditions.
Physical conditions of such resources as trails and campsites through the application of recreation ecology methods and analysis.
Important visitor use monitoring approaches that the protected area or a cooperator can implement to track the efficacy of management actions and alignment between current and desired conditions.
Understanding the human dimensions of wildlife.

Our work provides information for managers and planners to assist in:

Protected area planning related to visitor use, including development of a visitor use management plans if applicable.
Enhancing the visitor experience while protecting important natural and cultural resources.
Anticipating opposition or support from visitors for specific management actions.
Developing an effective communication approach that considers visitors’ perceptions.
The development of long term monitoring protocols.

To accomplish the project objectives, researchers often use a multi-phase and mixed-methods approach integrating analysis across multiple data sets, incorporating quantitative, qualitative, and spatiotemporal methods: Mixed-methods enhance the strength, reliability, and validity of findings through the inclusion and presentation of a multiple data points. Additionally, mixed methods strengthen the development of research instruments (e.g., questionnaires) by using qualitative phases to inform the development of quantitative phases.

Development of Indicators and Thresholds

Survey results, thresholds, and associated evaluative dimensions are often displayed on a social norm curve (Figure 1), although there are many other complimentary procedures for data analysis and display. Specifically, the evaluations of various conditions (e.g., acceptability level) are displayed on the y-axis whereas a range of indicator conditions are represented on the x-axis. Generally, the highest point on the curve represents the preferred or optimal condition, according to respondents. Researchers and managers often consider the neutral line (0) on the social norm curve one type of threshold, or the minimal acceptable condition. All points above the neutral line are often considered the range of acceptable conditions, while points below the neutral line represent conditions that are unacceptable or violate the threshold of the indicator.

Figure 1. Social norm curve for wait time for parking at Theodore Roosevelt National Park (THRO), comparing responses from the North and South Units. Results indicate a threshold of approximately 11 minutes with decreasing levels of acceptability as wait time increases (+4 = highly acceptable; -4 = highly unacceptable).

Visual methods

Visual approaches to measuring thresholds are often employed using computer altered photographs or videos to represent a range of conditions such as people within view at one time, number of vehicles at one time, and number of human structures within view on the landscape. Photos are used because they may better communicate or focus attention on the variables intended for evaluation by respondents, particularly when the variables are difficult or awkward to describe in a narrative format (Hallo & Manning, 2009; Manning & Freimund, 2004). Researchers often use visual methods, in the form of pictures, to help identify outdoor recreationists’ normative thresholds (Bullock & Lawson, 2008; Krymkowski, Manning, & Valliere, 2009).

Figure 2. Example of a photo panel showing people within view at the THRO (Boicourt Overlook), numbering from 0 people in Photo 1 to 60 people in Photo 5.

Visitor/Stakeholder interviews

Studies often utilize semi-structured confidential interviews with visitors. Qualitative methods, such as interviewing, provide a greater depth of insight into experiences than quantitative approaches and are particularly useful when little is known about the potential views expressed by respondents.

Interviews may take place in-person at a protected area, or potentially during internet meetings (e.g., zoom meeting) or phone calls. Interviews will be recorded with participants’ permission and stored anonymously following the University of Tennessee’s protocols for secure data storage in accordance with the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The investigators typically conduct content analysis of these interviews using coding procedures described by Patton (2002), and Miles and Huberman (1994). This coding will allow investigators to group similarly patterned responses into simpler, more generalized categories (Saldana, 2015).

Visitor questionnaires

Quantitative questionnaires can be constructed using best practices, and previously used and validated measures appropriately contextualized to the research setting. The questionnaires will likely be administered using a tablet computer, specifically a Samsung Galaxy Tablet A6 with a 7” display running Android 5.1.1 (although other approaches also exist that may be used). Responses from the questionnaires will be entered into SPSS 27.0 Statistical Software Package for analysis. Standard calculations for leverage, kurtosis, and skewness will be used to identify statistical outliers and to verify univariate and multivariate normality of the data, where applicable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The researchers will then address the research objectives using social norm curves, descriptive statistics, cross tabulations, predictions, and means testing. In all questionnaires, researchers will also capture visitors past use history (PUH; or past visits), outdoor recreation activities engaged in, and general demographics using standard U.S. Census Bureau categories.

Figure 3. Visitors at Buffalo National River completing a quantitative questionnaire on a tablet computer. The white binders contain computer altered photographs of various conditions for prioritized indicators.

To ensure a representative sample at specific locations, researchers will use a stratified random sampling procedure (stratified across time of day, day of the week, and season; Vaske, 2008). One respondent from each traveling group (e.g., family) will complete a questionnaire. If more than one person in each group is willing to participate, they will be given different questionnaire types to complete, avoiding a nested data structure. Response rates and response bias will be recorded and analyzed.

Field cameras

For some locations, researchers may capture high-definition photos of visitor use conditions every 15 minutes from sunrise to sunset or through motion detection. Each field camera location will be selected to represent a broad viewshed of the area that allows for use levels to be visually depicted. Analysis will use Timelapse 2 and machine learning technology to evaluate conditions in the photographs, segmented by time (e.g., hours of the day, days of the week, high use vs. low use days). Results from the field cameras (existing conditions) will be compared to visitor survey responses and management goals for a specific area (desired conditions).

Figure 4. Field camera at Dungeness Ruins at Cumberland Island National Seashore (CUIS)

Figure 5. Parking lot camera at Caprock Coulee at THRO

Figure 6. Data derived from parking lot camera at Caprock Coulee at THRO

Social Mobility Data (SMD)

Researchers will may use visitors’ anonymous cell phone data to explain variability in visitation amounts and trends. These data are publicly available for purchase from several private companies because most of the U.S. public consent to having phone (e.g., weather apps, google maps) or vehicle applications (e.g., driving directions) identify their location through ‘location services.’ Following individual use, this location data is often purchased by data clearinghouses for sale through movement analytics services. To use SMD we would geofence a particular area (e.g., a popular waterfall), purchase mobility data for individuals that have entered the geofenced area, and analyze the data to understand visitation patterns for each unit, including peak visitation times, duration of stay, and points of origin. The social mobility data only provides waypoints and timestamps and cannot be related to an individual’s name, home address, or other identifiable information. However, for each data point individual’s residence census block is provided, which can be used to identify general demographics for each visitor based on census block averages.

GPS data loggers

While SMD data is helpful, it has limitations. To address the limitations researchers may distribute Canmore GT-740FL Sport GPS data loggers to a representative sample of visitors. These loggers have also been used successfully in several previous studies (e.g., Sharp & Brownlee, 2016; Peterson, Brownlee, & Sharp, 2016). The Canmore GT-740FL has extended battery capabilities, is approximately 2.5 x 1.3 centimeters, and is equipped with a power button but no LCD interface. The few buttons and absence of an LCD screen limits device tampering by research participants. The GPS data loggers will be configured to record a waypoint in decimal degrees and a timestamp at 15-second intervals (Beeco, Hallo, & Brownlee, 2014). The Canmore GPS data loggers can only be analyzed retroactively, preventing the research team from evaluating visitor travel patterns in real-time. The researchers will import GPS data into MS Excel for cleaning and then analysis in ArcGIS. Analysis will help identify the average visit time, linger time at specific spots, miles driven and hiked, percent of time at attraction areas and away from the road, use density, and general spatial and temporal distributions at a finer scale than LBS data allows.

Figure 7. Canmore GT-740FL Sport GPS data logger and density maps during peak visitation hours at CUIS. Most visitors walk in a predictable u-shaped pattern with starting and ending locations at two different passenger ferry docks.

Trail conditions

Researchers will thoroughly assess known and newly encountered problem areas. This assessment will include standard procedures for trail condition. The final determination of the problem areas will be made in consultation with managers of the selected sites. While surveying select trails in select areas the researchers will use standardized trail measurements for trail width, maximum incision, muddiness, height of vegetation above trail, trail braiding, and rugosity (see the description of these measures below). The identification of these impact locations and the measured conditions serve two purposes. First, they illuminate specific trail locations where management action may be needed to mitigate future impacts and resolve current impacts through trail maintenance and/or redesign. Second, the data serves as a baseline to judge future conditions and assessments. The following techniques would be used to measure trail tread conditions at identified impact locations.

Trail Width
- Trail width is the gap in vegetation growth where the trail resides and is central to supporting trail traffic (Wimpey & Marion, 2010). Trail width is measured with a standard tape measure extended across the trail tread from boundaries defined by visually obvious trampling disturbance (Dale & Weaver, 1974). Excessive trail width means there is a larger areal extent of impact to vegetation, organic litter, and soil, possibly decreasing the aesthetics of the trail (Wimpey & Marion, 2010).

Trail Incision
- Trail incision is the depth of the main tread in relation to the sides of the trail (Marion & Leung, 2001). Researchers and managers generally measure incision by temporarily positioning a transect line that is perpendicular to the trail tread. The transect line is attached to stakes placed at the trail borders and configured vertically to represent the post-construction, pre-use tread surface (Marion, Leung, & Nepal, 2006). Trail incision is the maximum measurement taken from the transect line to the lowest point of the trail (Marion et al., 2006). Incision correlates with soil loss caused by wind and water erosion, compaction, and soil displacement (Olive & Marion, 2009). Significant soil loss can cause recreationists to wander laterally, widening the trail and causing greater vegetation and soil loss over time (Wimpey & Marion, 2010).

Cross-sectional Area
- “The cross-sectional area (CSA) of soil loss, from the taut string to the tread surface, was also measured using a variable interval method. CSA provides a more accurate measure of trail soil erosion that can be extrapolated to provide an estimate of total soil loss from each trail segment. The variable method is an adaptation of the traditional fixed interval method described by Cole (1983), designed to reduce measurement time to allow application at every sample point. Instead of taking vertical measurements along the horizontal transect at fixed intervals, vertical measurements are taken only at points directly above tread surface locations where changes in tread micro-topography occur” (Marion, 2006, p. 12)

Erosion
- Sections of the trail corridor (≥10 ft) with soil erosion exceeding 5 inches in depth would be recorded for erosion. The trail corridor includes the current trail tread, and 4 feet on each side of the current tread. The objective is to include instances where the trail tread has migrated to avoid eroded areas. These sections will typically be on slopes, and contain numerous exposed rocks, roots, ditches, and old treads or braided/multiple treads.

Muddiness
- Muddiness occurs on flat sections of trail that retain water and where the terrain lacks drainage (Marion & Leung, 2001). Muddiness is often measured by identifying the lineal extent of the muddy area using a measuring wheel (Moore, Leung, Matisoff, Dorwart, & Parker, 2012). Muddiness may cause recreationists to circumnavigate the muddy area, which can result in trail widening and/or vegetative trampling to avoid the mud (Marion, 1994). Conversely, muddiness may attract some users which could lead to increased impacts and increase the difficulty of travel.

Informal Trails & Trail Braiding
- Trail braiding is identified when a single trail separates into parallel treads (Marion & Leung, 2011). Trail braiding is typically seen in muddy locations where multiple treads have developed to circumnavigate the muddy location. Trail braiding also contributes to trampling of vegetation and may diminish the aesthetics of the proximal area.

Potential Deliverables

A detailed technical report, including sections for an executive summary, methods, results, modeling options, interpretation, and recommendations.
Multiple workshops with managers and decision-makers.
Presentations to key constituents, legislative bodies, and other influential groups.
Attendance at public meetings.
Integrative maps, GIS layers, and data that can be used for longitudinal comparison or additional cross-sectional analysis and monitoring.
Recorded webinars that explain important results from the study and align with the technical report.
Detailed monitoring recommendations specific to the context.
Peer-review journal articles and presentations at professional conferences and meetings.

Educational Training Experience

Research projects as outlined above represents a significant potential societal contribution in the form of assistance towards graduate and undergraduate student training and education. At least one graduate student typically works with the PI over the life of a project and will be involved in all phases. Additional graduate students may work part of the year on the project and be involved in data collection and analysis. It is likely these individuals will pursue more research opportunities and jobs with organizations that hold similar values and missions to the the sponsoring organization.